1.

Larva has distinctive horn on last segment (Fig. 1a) 18

Larva lacks a distinctive horn on last segment (Fig. 1b) 2

2.

Larva has no horn (Fig. 2a) 3

Larva has a very small nub of a horn or has a greatly reduced horn (Fig. 2b) 13

3.

Larva is brown and a stick mimic. It resembles the larvae of Geometridae moths. Found only in mangrove habitat Madoryx pseudothyreus

Larva not as above 4

4.

Larva is a very good grape bark mimic or has many green blotches on it resembling grapes; the anal horn is replaced by a very distinctive eyespot Sphecodina abbottii

Larva not as above 5

5.

Larva has multiple sets of white lines running down the entire length (from head to anal plate) of the larva, with an orange marked head capsule and orange-tan legs; may be feeding on pine (Lapara spp.) (Fig. 3a) 6

Larva is quite large and round, the first few abdominal segments may be swollen. Larva may have white markings surrounding the spiracles on the middle abdominal segments (Eumorpha spp.) (Fig. 3b) 7

6.

The larva has solid black spiracles (Fig. 4a) Lapara coniferarum

The larva has black spiracles with an orange center (Fig. 4b) Lapara phaeobrachycerous

7.

Larva has two distinctive eyespots on the enlarged thoracic area; generally mottled brown and gray in color; larva resembles a snake Eumorpha labruscae

Larva has various degrees of white streaking/eyespots on each abdominal segment, generally with multiple color morphs. Larva not as above. 8

8.

Larva is usually multicolored but can have a plain green form. The white streaking on each abdominal segment extends into the next segment; commonly found in wet areas where it’s hostplant Ludwigia grows (Fig. 5a) Eumorpha fasciatus

Larva is generally pure green or red, the white markings do not extend into other abdominal segments; larva is otherwise not as above (Fig. 5b) 9

9.

Larva has at least 6 distinctive eyespots or white streaks, one on each abdominal segment, there are no obvious white dorsal lines (Fig. 6a) 10

Larva usually has less than 6 eyespots (it may have exactly 6 or rarely more than 6) or streaks, generally lighter toward the head of the larva, and becoming more distinct as you approach the anal horn (Fig. 6b) 11

10.

Larva has heavy black (or hollow black) speckling; a red, green, or brick red color; with white markings resembling conjoined eyespots on each abdominal segment 5-10 (Fig. 7a) Eumorpha achemon

Larva has little to no black speckling; can come in a variety of colors including red, yellow, green, black, or brown; one large distinct eyespot on each abdominal segment 5-10 (Fig. 7b) Eumorpha pandorus

11.

Larva is rather smooth looking with minimal black speckling 12

Larva has lots of black speckling; generally red in color; there is reduced white striping on the abdominal segments, with only the last few segments having a full white stripe Eumorpha intermedia

12.

Larva appears very smooth, generally green or red with little or no black speckling Eumorpha vitis

Larva is very smooth, generally red/green/brown in color, there is a white horizontal line above the spiracles on the side of the larva running the length of the larva, there is a thick black dorsal stripe Eumorpha satellitia

13.

Larva has no visible abdominal streaking. Larva is pure green with 2 white stripes running down the length of the larva. The area in between the stripes is usually slightly bluish in color. The larva may be brown, in which case the white stripes will be absent. The head capsule has 2 small lines (Erinnyis spp.) 14

Larva has visible abdominal streaking or is otherwise not pure green or pure brown 15

14.

Larva is green or brown and has a hidden eyespot on the dorsum. The eyespot is quite colorful and will be revealed if the caterpillar feels threatened Erinnyis ello

Larva is generally green (a brown form does exist), with small black spiracles, there is no eyespot on the dorsum. There are two small lines on the head Erinnyis obscura

15.

Larva is variable and may be brown and white splotched resembling bark, green, or a blue-green color; there are 2 green dorsal stripes which are not visible in the brown/white form; prepupal larvae turn orange and turquoise; found near Ficus spp Pachylia ficus

Larva not as above 16

16.

Larva generally green in color with reddish purple half-moon shapes surrounding the spiracles on each abdominal segment Proserpinus gaurae

Larva not as above 17

17.

Larva is blue-green in color with red spiracles. There are 6 white stripes on the abdominal segments, the last leading to the reduced horn Pachysphinx modesta

Larva is brown, with tan-brown sides. The legs are rimmed in white. Found in mangrove/coastal habitats Phryxus caicus

18.

Larva is overall granulose in appearance, granules not restricted to only the dorsal region 19

Larva is not very granulose, or granules are restricted to only the dorsal region and overall smooth in appearance 25

19.

Larva has 4 projections resembling horns on the thoracic segments. Larva has small projections lining the entire dorsal ridge of the larva and a very granulose horn. Larva can be green or brown…. Ceratomia amyntor

Larva lacks the 4 projections on the thoracic segments and is otherwise not as above 20

20.

Larva has a very pointy triangular head capsule. Larva is green or can be a beautiful pink/yellow form. The thick granulated horn curves distinctly up and back. When the larva is disturbed, it will bite and hiss Amorpha juglandis

Larva not as above 21

21.

Larva has a distinctive very thick white (sometimes yellow) abdominal stripe on it’s last few segments that leads to a long, nearly-straight, green (green-yellow), granulose horn. The larva may be green, or have purple, yellow, red, or white splotches on it, it has blue spiracles. Found primarily in Florida. Protambulyx strigilis

Larva not as above 22

22.

Larva is light bright green or green-yellow and may have a green, red, or bicolored granulose horn (Fig. 8a) 23

Larva is darker green or blue-green and may have a blue, blue-green, or dark green granulose horn (Fig. 8b) 24

23.

Larva is lime green in color with various amounts of purple or red splotching. The horn is yellow and red and distinctly bicolored. Found generally in areas with lots of Vaccinium spp Paonias astylus

Larva is bright green with various amounts of red splotching. The horn color is green or red and quite granulose. The overall appearance of the larva is stout Paonias myops

24.

Larva is green-blue in color and highly variable with red and purple markings. Some forms may be totally green. It can also be without those markings. The horn is granulose and bluish, or green in color. The overall appearance of the larva is elongate Paonias excaecata

Larva has 2 parallel white streaks that stop shortly after the first spiracle or that usually do not connect with the last abdominal streak. There are white streaks running diagonally along the side of the larva, the last leading to a distinctive blue horn. Associated with Populus spp. Smerinthus jamaicensis

25.

Larva has a distinctly granulose horn (Fig. 9a) 26

Larva not as above (Fig. 9b) 35

26.

Larva has a red or yellow granulose collar behind the head (Hemaris spp.) (Fig. 10a) 27

Larva does not have a granulated collar behind the head 29

27.

Larva has a yellow granulose collar 28

Larva has a red collar behind the head, found in areas with significant amounts of Vaccinium; larva has a distinct red horn Hemaris gracilis

28.

Larva has a distinctly bicolored yellow and black horn with black spiracles Hemaris diffinis

Larva has a blue horn Hemaris thysbe

29.

Larva has a blue or green granulose horn 30

Larva has another colored granulose horn 33

30.

Larva has a blue granulose horn 31

Larva has a green granulose horn 32

31.

Larva has a distinctly blue horn with black granules, there are yellow and black abdominal streaks Sphinx kalmiae

Larva is teal in color with a brighter green dorsal area. There are 7 thick white stripes that end at the top of the orange spiracles Manduca brontes cubensis

32.

Larva has thick purple lines bordering the white streaks on the abdominal segments, the horn is very large and green in color with small black granules on it Manduca rustica

Larva is covered in white granules and is a very light green in color. The green horn is granulose and short with a distinctive red tip Manduca jasminearum

33.

Larva has 7 white abdominal stripes 34

Larva has a large purple horn. A distinctive white streak runs from the base of the horn through the last 3 abdominal segments of the larva. Restricted to South Florida Cocytius antaeus

34.

Larva has some thin purple lines or splotching bordering the white streaks on the abdomen. The horn is white with black granules Ceratomia hageni

Larva is green with a thick red or black horn. There are 7 white abdominal streaks that may be bordered by a red or purple stripe. The larva can also be brown with a black horn. Breeding in Southern Florida Eupyrrhoglossum sagra

35.

Larva has an enlarged/swollen first few abdominal segments (Fig. 11a) 36

Larva not as above (Fig. 11b) 41

36.

Larva is mottled brown with a fake eyespot hidden on the first few abdominal segments. There is a short but thick white horn. Erinnyis alope

Larva not as above 37

37.

Larva has one or more distinct pairs of thoracic eyespots, usually with an enlarged thoracic region (Xylophanes spp.) (Fig. 12a) 40

Larva is green or brown with white shading or lines on the side of the body (Darapsa spp.) (Fig. 12b) 38

38.

Larva has a bluish horn 39

Larva has an orange horn Darapsa versicolor

39.

Larva has a blue horn, and has red-orange patterning on the dorsal surface Darapsa myron

Larva has a blue horn, and no red-orange patterning on the dorsal surface Darapsa choerilus

40.

Larva has only one distinct pair of eyespots on the thoracic segments and none on the rest of the body. Larva may be green or brown with a horn that usually matches the ground color of the larva Xylophanes pluto

Larva has one large pair of eyespots on the enlarged thoracic area, and then several smaller eyespots running down the first few abdominal segments. Larva is green or brown to almost black often with a black horn Xylophanes tersa

41.

Larva has a raised area on the first few abdominal segments, or it may have small projections running the entire length of the dorsal region (Fig. 13a) 42

Larva not as above 43

42.

Larva is predominantly black, has a large black oval shape outlined by cream on the dorsal portion of the thoracic segments, usually right behind a raised area. Common in gardens Lintneria eremitus

Larva is blue-green with a blue-green horn. There are two dorsal spiny ridges that follow blue lines. The larva itself is rather plain, with 7 light blue/white abdominal streaks with the last leading to the horn. The spiracles are an orange color. The head capsule has two green lines Sphinx franckii

43.

Larva has a green horn 44

Larva does not have a green horn 47

44.

Larva is overall green in appearance and extremely variable. There may be assorted black/purple/green splotching. There is often some dorsal patterning. The head capsule has two parallel lines on the outer edge, and the inner portion has an additional set of parallel lines in a funnel shape Enyo lugubris

Larva not as above, the head capsule is unmarked (Aellopos spp) 45

45.

Larva is dark green with 7 large distinctive abdominal white bands. The dorsal surface may be primarily white. The last abdominal white streak is quite thick and leads up to the dark horn. Found primarily in South Florida Aellopos tantaulus

Larva lacks lots of distinctive white on it, may be lighter green in color 46

46.

Larva green and may have a blue tint. There are 7 diagonal abdominal streaks which may be entirely reduced except the first and last. The lines may be bordered in black. The last abdominal streak is quite thick and white in color and leads to the horn Aellopos titan

Larva may be green or red with 7 white and black diagonal abdominal streaks. The white and black streaking may be reduced. There are cream colored speckles on the larva, giving it a rough appearance, but it is not granulose. There are red spiracles and the last abdominal streak extends to the horn. Likely only breeding in Southern Florida and perhaps Southern Texas Aellopos fadus

47.

Larva has a black (or blue-black) horn (Fig. 14a) 48

Larva doesn't have a black horn 53

48.

Larva is highly variable. Ranging from green to brown to pink or orange. The spiracles are very distinctive and outlined in black. The horn is usually black in color but may sometimes have a secondary color underneath. The head capsule is distinctive with two black lines running the length of each lobe Agrius cingulata

Larva not as above 49

49.

Larva has a long, thin, spindly horn (Fig. 15a) 50

Larva has a more typical sphingiform horn, thicker and may be curved 51

50.

Larva has a jet black headcapsule, a long thin spindly black horn. The larva itself is light yellow/cream colored with various amounts of black patterning. Found near Catalpa trees Ceratomia catalpae

Larva is quite large, black and orange/yellow banded with an orange head capsule and a long spindly black horn. The anal plate, thoracic segment behind head, and legs are all orange with black stippling. Found primarily in Florida where the hostplant Plumeria grows Pseudosphinx tetrio

51.

Larva is overall brown in color with various amounts of black streaking on the sides. The dorsum is generally darker than the sides. The head capsule is brown with two cream streaks on the side and the middle between the streaks is darker than the rest of the head capsule Amphion floridensis

Larva not as above 52

52.

Larva is green or brown in color. Very boldly marked with orange streaking above the orange spiracles on the abdominal segments and large white splotches below. The entire larva is speckled in white and there is a white line on the anal plate. The horn is usually black. Found in areas with lots of Taxodium Isoparce cupressi

Larva is green, black, or brown in color. There are 7 distinct chevron shapes usually in white or cream on the abdominal segments surrounding the black spiracles. The horn is black in color. There may be various amounts of white speckling on the larva Manduca quinquemaculatus

53.

Larva has clearly defined abdominal streaking with either 6 or 7 stripes, usually white with a secondary color (Fig. 16a) 54

Larva lacks clearly defined abdominal streaking, or may just be boldly patterned (Fig. 16b) 59

54.

Larva has only 6 pairs of abdominal stripes, usually thin purple and white with a blue horn Dolba hyloeus

Larva has 7 pairs of abdominal stripes 55

55.

Larva has a blue horn 56

Larva has a red or pink horn 57

56.

Larva has blue/green and yellow abdominal streaking above red spiracles; there is usually white/yellow speckling on the thoracic segments Paratrea plebeja

Larva has white and blue abdominal streaking, there is a distinctly darker green on the dorsal side of the larva, especially behind the streaking. The larva has red spiracles and two white lines on the head capsule Sphinx chersis

57.

Larva has a pinkish horn and is overall green in color but is highly variable and may be entirely pink or orange. It may have lots of pink or yellow streaking, but usually has white abdominal streaking on it. The anal plate has black speckling Ceratomia undulosa

Not as above, horn is distinctly red 58

58.

Larva is green or blue-green with 7 white abdominal stripes with thin black lines above them. The spiracles are black and fall directly underneath the white streaking. There is often some bluish coloration around the base of the horn on the last abdominal segment Manduca sexta

Larva is green with a distinctly blue head capsule. There are 7 white/cream faint abdominal stripes. There are a pair of white dorsal stripes running the length of the larva. The last abdominal stripe is thicker and ends at the base of the red anal horn. Primarily in Southern Florida Perigonia lusca

59.

Larva lacks abdominal stripes near the spiracles. Larva has a white line that extends horizontally from the anal plate through the last few abdominal segments. There are red spiracles. The larva may have blotching. Found only in Florida Cautethia grotei

Larva not as above 60

60.

Larva is highly variable, ground color can be green, brown, bluish, or black. There are usually several horizontal lines running the length of the larva. Usually a dorsal line, and then two on either side. The larva itself usually has distinctive splotching along the side lines. The horn color is yellow or orange with some black on the tip. The head capsule is either green or yellow/orange Hyles lineata

Larva has a yellow horn with distinctive yellow patterning on the sides, the spiracles are black. The ground color of the larva is green, lighter on the side below the yellow and darker on the dorsal surface. The thoracic legs are yellow Deidamia inscriptum

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​Figure Photo Credits:
1a: Teá Kesting-Handly
1b: Teá Kesting-Handly, Ashley Bosarge
2a: Teá Kesting-Handly
2b: Stephen Cresswell
3a: Teá Kesting-Handly
3b: Ashley Bosarge, Sam Jaffe, Jeff Hollenbeck, Teá Kesting-Handly
4a: Teá Kesting-Handly
4b: Ashley Bosarge
5a: Ashley Bosarge
5b: Teá Kesting-Handly, Sam Jaffe
6a: Teá Kesting-Handly
6b: Sam Jaffe
7a: Teá Kesting-Handly
7b: Teá Kesting-Handly
8a: Ashley Bosarge, Jon Mularczyk, Teá Kesting-Handly
8b: Tom Murray, Bill Lucas
9a: Ashley Bosarge, Jacob Gorneau
9b: Jon Mularczyk
10a: Teá Kesting-Handly, Ashley Bosarge
11a: Teá Kesting-Handly, Ashley Bosarge
11b: Ashley Bosarge
12a: Ashley Bosarge
12b: Teá Kesting-Handly
13a: Marcie O'Connor
14a: Teá Kesting-Handly, Ashley Bosarge
15a: Teá Kesting-Handly
16a: Ashley Bosarge, Jon Mularczyk
16b: Eric Eaton, Teá Kesting-Handly

Key Created with DKey
Tofilski A (2018) DKey software for editing and browsing dichotomous keys. ZooKeys 735: 131-140. https://doi.org/10.3897/zookeys.735.21412